Approximately 4600 years ago, one of the earliest civilizations thrived in the Indus river valley. These people had large cities that were organized into 12 smaller units. We know that these people had a rigid class system that was probably based on lineage. There is strong evidence of a Theocracy, which was common in this time period. One thing that surprises Archaeologists is the lack of highly developed military structures within the civilization. The cities had large walls; however, it is not known if they were for defensive purposes. Most of what is known about the civilization comes from two main sites, the two largest cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which are located on the Indus River in is now Pakistan. The civilization itself spans from across the Persian Gulf to modern day Omen all the way to the Persian Gulf. We know due to the size of the cities these people were capable of mass production of food, efficient transports and well-developed irrigation systems. The civilization is known for its over-prevalence of artwork and art-related artifacts. They had a written language, which has has yet to be deciphered since its discovery in the 1920’s. However, recent discoveries have made it possible to read certain common glyphs, such as “warrior” and “priest.” They had several other technological advancements, including a standard measurement system, Bronze and other metals, and even dentistry. Trade was a central element to the civilization, and many Indus artifacts have reached as far as Mesopotamia and China. Religion was of prime importance to these people, and most of the artwork has a religious basis. We find that some of the symbols bear great resemblance to symbols associated with Hinduism. The civilization is assumed to be rigid based on the city layouts and uniformity of nearly every known aspect of cities. Even bricks across the Persian Gulf hundreds of miles away were being built to the same specifications as those in Harappa. The end of the Indus civilization is highly debated. A few plausible theories exist: the Aryan invasion, socioeconomic instability and natural disaster.
EVIDENCE OF A PRIESTLY RULING CLASS::
MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE IN HARAPPA & MOHENJO-DARO AND URBAN ORGANIZATION:
ART HISTORY AND RELIGIOUS PARALLELS:
The sophistication of the Indus River civilization is evident in the art excavated from its two principal archaeological sites, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Consisting mostly of seals, pottery, ubiquitous mother goddesses and a few other human figures, the artwork from this civilization serves as evidence of a civilization that engaged in trade, probably had an organized, top-down religion that may have been the precursor to Hinduism, and was most likely stratified in keeping with the pattern of other early civilizations. The cities themselves are also evidence of a highly organized civilization, their structures alluding to later aspects of the Hindu and Buddhist religions.
Indus seals, the most famous of which are the Unicorn Seal, the Zebu Bull Seal, and Seal 420, are evidence of a trade system that spanned great distances. These seals were used to stamp exports in order to trace their origin. The discovery of Indus Valley goods in Mesopotamia as well as the presence of goods from Mesopotamia, Southeast Asia and China in the Indus Valley suggest an interconnected span of civilizations that predate the Silk Roads. An undeciphered script that appears on the Indus seals is further evidence of an organized, cohesive civilization that enjoyed standardization and a common language.
The animals on the seals are depicted with great naturalism, far more so than most Indus Valley images of humans, and are thought to indicate a heightened respect for these animals. Specifically, the bull on the Zebu Bull Seal is represented in loving detail; though the accompanying script has yet to be deciphered, a link to the Vedic and eventually Hindu practice of bull veneration is generally accepted (Korom). The “unicorn” on the seal of the same name is equally naturalistic, despite its fictitious nature. Another seal, #420 (known as the “Proto-Shiva” or Pashupati Seal), is further evidence for a link between the religion of the Indus Valley and the subsequent Hindu faith: The figure in the center of the seal is holding a yogic posture, displays a Trimurti (three faces), has a prominent phallus, and is surrounded by animals. All of these characteristics fit with the later iconography of the Hindu god Shiva, who is known as the “Yogi” of the gods, is often depicted with three faces (representing his three avatars, or incarnations), takes the form of a phallus (called the “Shiva-Linga”) in some representations, and is known as the Lord of the Beasts (Pashupati) for the mutual affinity between Shiva and all animals (Srinivasan and Dhyanksy).
Pottery from the Harappa site serves as evidence of the defining aspect of a “civilized” civilization: the ability to settle down in one place. The red- and black-slip pottery excavated from Harappa reveals a tradition of geometric designs with few human or animal figures. Similar to the Geometric Period of Greek pottery in their craftsmanship and design, these vessels would have been used to store material goods for later use. That pottery was necessary at all is a sign that the Indus civilization enjoyed surpluses in their agricultural pursuits, a fact further attested to by the ability of this civilization to trade with its neighbors.
Human sculptural art yields insight into the social structures that existed in the Indus Valley. Two different artifacts from Mohenjo-Daro, the “Priest King” and a bronze sculpture of a dancing girl (sometimes called the “Courtesan”) are strikingly different in their portrayal of human forms. The dancing girl is highly stylized, her spaghetti-limbs and over-sized facial features preventing her association with any particular human being. The Priest King, by comparison, is more life-like both in size (he is ¾ life-sized) and in facial features. He is depicted in bust form, the focus of his likeness falling on his face and shoulders rather than his body as a whole. He is clothed (the trefoil designs on his robe still bear traces of red pigment), while the bronze dancing girl is mostly nude. Clearly these two sculptures were created for different purposes and reflect at least two strata of civilization: a priestly or noble upper class and a class of people who catered to them in one way or another. Clues that the bust of the Priest King was once decorated by a headdress, shell eyes, painted clothing, and possible other accouterments bear witness to another similarity between Indus civilization and later Hindu religion: the practice of dressing up idols and treating them as actual living things, feeding them during the day and putting them to bed at night. Although there are no indications that the Priest King was used for ritualistic purposes, the level of decoration that he once had suggests a dedication to images echoed in Hinduism even today.
The “mother goddess” figures, which are found in staggering quantities throughout the Indus Valley, attest to another aspect of Indus civilization that foreshadows Hindu art. These rudimentary clay figures, with exaggerated female forms, call to mind the yakshi that decorate later Buddhist and Hindu sacred sites (like the 3rd century BC to 1st century AD Sanchi Stupa in India). Their association with fertility mirrors that of the yakshi, which are said to be so fertile that they can cause a tree to burst into blossom simply by touching it. The male counterpart to the yakshi, the yaksha, also has potential roots in the Indus Valley. A male torso, found at Harappa but originally thought to be a piece of ancient Greek artistry because of its skillful representation of human anatomy, alludes to the ideal male form as exemplified in later Hindu and Buddhist monuments.
Certain structures in Mohenjo-Daro have specific significance in the study of its relation to the religions of South Asia. The stupa, which has long been attributed to Kushan Buddhists in the 2nd century A.D., was built over the existing citadel of the city. Emerging research suggests, however, that the stupa was added earlier, perhaps even by the original inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro (Lawler). In Buddhist architecture, stupas are all crowned with a chatri, or umbrella; the inclusion of a chatri in Buddhist and Hindu temples indicates the presence of something extraordinary or divine, a style echoed in early aniconic representations of the Buddha (an umbrella marks the place where the absent Buddha sits or stands). That the citadel in Mohenjo-Daro was chosen as the site for a stupa suggests that this site held a religious rather than a military significance to the Buddhists who built it; if the stupa is in fact a later addition, this understanding could have originated from the dispersed Indus valley people.
The great bath of Mohenjo-Daro is stronger evidence for the case of a connection to Hinduism. Located in a public place, the bath is surrounded by smaller chambers (which beg a comparison to the monastic chambers surrounding Buddhist temples) whose use is unknown. Hindu religion deifies rivers (the Ganges is personified as the goddess Ganga), and the act of ritual cleansing is central. If the inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro used the Great Bath for ritual purposes, this could very well be a practice that was passed down until it became included in the religious practices of the first Hindus.
ARTISAN AND MERCHANT CLASS DISCUSSION:
Trade with Sumer and Persia was a vital part of the Indus economy. They exchanged metal workings of copper and bronze, beads, and cotton textiles in exchange for tin and turquoise. It is speculated that the lower city of Mohenjo-Daro that housed artisans whose occupation was solely involved with metal working. Implements and tools like knives, spears, arrowhead, chisels, and razors were made through the simple casting, chiseling and hammering of the copper and bronze. Other metals, such as gold, silver, and lead were used sparingly, the gold being reserved for pendants and brooches.
They were also known for the beads they manufactured from stone and the impressive etched carnelians that were made with incredible skill and accuracy. These beads were then turned into beautiful necklaces and amulets.
As the trade and commerce the Indus Valley people engaged in increased, there was also a growth in the necessity to formulate an understanding of mathematics. Counting systems, represented by groups of lines, was among the first to emerge, although this eventually involved into numeric symbols. By the Harappan period, their system of weights and measures was known for its remarkable accuracy. Weights were divided into ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500. Interesting enough, one unit was approximately 28 grams or about one imperial ounce.
EVIDENCE OF A MILITARY CLASS:
Harappa did have defensible walls, but for the most part they were probably to keep out animals as they are not very well fortified except in the south. Like the Minoans, Harappans probably left their defenses to the natural surroundings. Weapons have not been found at the sight, but that does not mean they will not be found (or even moved)?. Think of when Japan surrendered their weapons to America at the end of WW2. Recently, archaeologists have been finding copper knives, spears, and arrowheads, all of which would have been used for hunting and small time raiding, which was the most likely form of warfare this area saw. Clay balls have also been found at Harappa, which would lead us to believe they favored fighting at a distance with clay sling pellets and arrows. This resembles the English in Medieval times when archers would outnumber soldiers ten to one.
Of all the major ancient civilizations, it would be easy to speculate that a warrior class was not of high importance to this civilization. We do not find any evidence for a highly developed military-industrial complex in the known artifacts.
END OF CIVILIZATION AS WE KNOW IT:
EVIDENCE OF A PRIESTLY RULING CLASS::
While many of the theories related to a Theocracy are considered speculation, the Indus civilization shows several general indicators of a Theocratic government. The Indus civilization engaged in monumental structure building, much like the Egyptians and early civilizations of Mesopotamia. This type of building is very significant in establishing a basis for a Theocracy because it shows the emphasis the people or ruling class put on religious activities. A civilization would not dedicate the time and resources to these buildings if religion were not important. We also see repeating symbols in their artworks featuring primarily religious overtones. We find very little evidence for the central priest king hypothesis. Most of this hypothesis is based on other civilizations and of course the infamous “priest king” statue.
The idea that the Indus civilization operated around a class dominated system is supported by the architecture. The Caste system, as this class divisions came to be known in later times, made it possible to keep civilized order and sustain life within the city. The Indus civilization consisted of multiple social classes and closely resembles a proto-caste system with the following classes: the priestly class, the merchants and artisans, and a lower class. Harappan civilization was dominated by a powerful priestly class that ruled form the citadel of each of its capitals. The priests likely controlled everything from the building of large scale structures to the division of food supply, and was even the defensive coordinator during times of war. The control exhibited by the uniformity and rigid ordering of the Harappan civilization would not have been possible without the extensive aristocratic class either made up of priests or high class merchants.
Like other civilizations it is likely that the priests derived their impressive control over city and village dwellers from their role as mediators between the Harappan civilization and the gods and goddesses in which they believed, basically a divinely inspired right to rule. Religious views may also have been separated by class. For instance, the priest found preference in their male god, a naked male figure with a horned head and a fierce facial expression, while other commoners envisioned a female “mother goddess.” Fertility, reflected by the “mother goddess,” was also worshiped in the form of animal. The Bull, still a figure of worship in contemporary Hindu culture, was a common representation of expression for people in the lower regions of the caste system.
MONUMENTAL ARCHITECTURE IN HARAPPA & MOHENJO-DARO AND URBAN ORGANIZATION:
Cities were highly organized with the flagship cities located around the Indus river. Large Cities were divided into 12 subunits centered around large Citadels and Granaries. The Citadels were of high religious importance. The largest dwellings were equitable to palaces, being as large as 8000 square feet with a dozen or more living spaces. On the flip side of that spectrum peasant houses were as small as 100 square feet. (Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus civilization, p17) Most sizable buildings had circular wells, fireplaces and rubbish chutes. It is probable that members of this class and possibly wealthy mercantile families lived in large two- to three-story houses that were characteristically sized and not decorated. It is likely that the priest lived in or near the citadel, while his elite class lived in lavishly sized houses much bigger that those of the commoners, who stayed just outside the main cities. Public baths were a common theme and likely were used for religious purposes as indicated by later religious activities in the region.
Villages were very standard for the time but may have possessed advanced Indus irrigation technology. Sheep and goats were the main form of livestock. It is thought that as religious ideas developed into proto-Hinduism that cows became less important as a source of food (Korom).ART HISTORY AND RELIGIOUS PARALLELS:
The sophistication of the Indus River civilization is evident in the art excavated from its two principal archaeological sites, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Consisting mostly of seals, pottery, ubiquitous mother goddesses and a few other human figures, the artwork from this civilization serves as evidence of a civilization that engaged in trade, probably had an organized, top-down religion that may have been the precursor to Hinduism, and was most likely stratified in keeping with the pattern of other early civilizations. The cities themselves are also evidence of a highly organized civilization, their structures alluding to later aspects of the Hindu and Buddhist religions.
Indus seals, the most famous of which are the Unicorn Seal, the Zebu Bull Seal, and Seal 420, are evidence of a trade system that spanned great distances. These seals were used to stamp exports in order to trace their origin. The discovery of Indus Valley goods in Mesopotamia as well as the presence of goods from Mesopotamia, Southeast Asia and China in the Indus Valley suggest an interconnected span of civilizations that predate the Silk Roads. An undeciphered script that appears on the Indus seals is further evidence of an organized, cohesive civilization that enjoyed standardization and a common language.
The animals on the seals are depicted with great naturalism, far more so than most Indus Valley images of humans, and are thought to indicate a heightened respect for these animals. Specifically, the bull on the Zebu Bull Seal is represented in loving detail; though the accompanying script has yet to be deciphered, a link to the Vedic and eventually Hindu practice of bull veneration is generally accepted (Korom). The “unicorn” on the seal of the same name is equally naturalistic, despite its fictitious nature. Another seal, #420 (known as the “Proto-Shiva” or Pashupati Seal), is further evidence for a link between the religion of the Indus Valley and the subsequent Hindu faith: The figure in the center of the seal is holding a yogic posture, displays a Trimurti (three faces), has a prominent phallus, and is surrounded by animals. All of these characteristics fit with the later iconography of the Hindu god Shiva, who is known as the “Yogi” of the gods, is often depicted with three faces (representing his three avatars, or incarnations), takes the form of a phallus (called the “Shiva-Linga”) in some representations, and is known as the Lord of the Beasts (Pashupati) for the mutual affinity between Shiva and all animals (Srinivasan and Dhyanksy).
Human sculptural art yields insight into the social structures that existed in the Indus Valley. Two different artifacts from Mohenjo-Daro, the “Priest King” and a bronze sculpture of a dancing girl (sometimes called the “Courtesan”) are strikingly different in their portrayal of human forms. The dancing girl is highly stylized, her spaghetti-limbs and over-sized facial features preventing her association with any particular human being. The Priest King, by comparison, is more life-like both in size (he is ¾ life-sized) and in facial features. He is depicted in bust form, the focus of his likeness falling on his face and shoulders rather than his body as a whole. He is clothed (the trefoil designs on his robe still bear traces of red pigment), while the bronze dancing girl is mostly nude. Clearly these two sculptures were created for different purposes and reflect at least two strata of civilization: a priestly or noble upper class and a class of people who catered to them in one way or another. Clues that the bust of the Priest King was once decorated by a headdress, shell eyes, painted clothing, and possible other accouterments bear witness to another similarity between Indus civilization and later Hindu religion: the practice of dressing up idols and treating them as actual living things, feeding them during the day and putting them to bed at night. Although there are no indications that the Priest King was used for ritualistic purposes, the level of decoration that he once had suggests a dedication to images echoed in Hinduism even today.
The “mother goddess” figures, which are found in staggering quantities throughout the Indus Valley, attest to another aspect of Indus civilization that foreshadows Hindu art. These rudimentary clay figures, with exaggerated female forms, call to mind the yakshi that decorate later Buddhist and Hindu sacred sites (like the 3rd century BC to 1st century AD Sanchi Stupa in India). Their association with fertility mirrors that of the yakshi, which are said to be so fertile that they can cause a tree to burst into blossom simply by touching it. The male counterpart to the yakshi, the yaksha, also has potential roots in the Indus Valley. A male torso, found at Harappa but originally thought to be a piece of ancient Greek artistry because of its skillful representation of human anatomy, alludes to the ideal male form as exemplified in later Hindu and Buddhist monuments.
Certain structures in Mohenjo-Daro have specific significance in the study of its relation to the religions of South Asia. The stupa, which has long been attributed to Kushan Buddhists in the 2nd century A.D., was built over the existing citadel of the city. Emerging research suggests, however, that the stupa was added earlier, perhaps even by the original inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro (Lawler). In Buddhist architecture, stupas are all crowned with a chatri, or umbrella; the inclusion of a chatri in Buddhist and Hindu temples indicates the presence of something extraordinary or divine, a style echoed in early aniconic representations of the Buddha (an umbrella marks the place where the absent Buddha sits or stands). That the citadel in Mohenjo-Daro was chosen as the site for a stupa suggests that this site held a religious rather than a military significance to the Buddhists who built it; if the stupa is in fact a later addition, this understanding could have originated from the dispersed Indus valley people.
The great bath of Mohenjo-Daro is stronger evidence for the case of a connection to Hinduism. Located in a public place, the bath is surrounded by smaller chambers (which beg a comparison to the monastic chambers surrounding Buddhist temples) whose use is unknown. Hindu religion deifies rivers (the Ganges is personified as the goddess Ganga), and the act of ritual cleansing is central. If the inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro used the Great Bath for ritual purposes, this could very well be a practice that was passed down until it became included in the religious practices of the first Hindus.
ARTISAN AND MERCHANT CLASS DISCUSSION:
Back during earlier time frames, the Indus River Valley civilization, like other civilizations, broke into three separate statuses, high, middle and working-class. What the middle class people had during the earlier time period were not as equivalent as to its social counterparts. In the Indus River Valley civilization, middle-class households did not own the same type of property as the elite did. The housing facilities they stayed in were narrow and did not fare as much value in terms of living standards. Plus, the housing facilities were also less attractive. Trade and innovation design had been the norms during that particular time frame. Transportation, which included animals and wagons, had been naturally- used tools during the ancient Indus Valley civilization period. Middle-class citizens in the Indus Valley were particularly those who had done business on a daily routine despite the fact that they lived in homes that were not as appealing as it could have been.
Throughout the ancient period, merchants were often those who would do business with one another as well as exchange goods. Despite the economic input that it may provide, merchants at that time were thought to be of lower status than the elite were, if not poor. Even so, those goods that these merchants had exchanged were involved seals, jade, jewelry and pottery. Seals were among the first and foremost type of goods that had been established on a piece of stone. They were these stony type of figures which “contained images of animals, Indus script, and the so-called Standard.” (The Ancient Indus, p. 183). Seals had been the type of artifacts which have been renowned for its exoticism as well as for its special design. However, seals and crafts were built in different areas, indicating that “seal production was restricted to the northern quarter of the town, while other crafts (beads, weights, metal) were produced in the southern region” (The Ancient Indus, p.184). Merchants have developed strong trade relations with Sumer and Mesopotamia while exchanging seals with one another, due to their settlement within one of these areas, that being Mesopotamia. Other goods, such as jade, were shipped in from China as well as jewelry that were shipped in from southeast Asia.
Trade with Sumer and Persia was a vital part of the Indus economy. They exchanged metal workings of copper and bronze, beads, and cotton textiles in exchange for tin and turquoise. It is speculated that the lower city of Mohenjo-Daro that housed artisans whose occupation was solely involved with metal working. Implements and tools like knives, spears, arrowhead, chisels, and razors were made through the simple casting, chiseling and hammering of the copper and bronze. Other metals, such as gold, silver, and lead were used sparingly, the gold being reserved for pendants and brooches.
They were also known for the beads they manufactured from stone and the impressive etched carnelians that were made with incredible skill and accuracy. These beads were then turned into beautiful necklaces and amulets.
As the trade and commerce the Indus Valley people engaged in increased, there was also a growth in the necessity to formulate an understanding of mathematics. Counting systems, represented by groups of lines, was among the first to emerge, although this eventually involved into numeric symbols. By the Harappan period, their system of weights and measures was known for its remarkable accuracy. Weights were divided into ratios of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500. Interesting enough, one unit was approximately 28 grams or about one imperial ounce.
EVIDENCE OF A MILITARY CLASS:
It is a popular belief that Harappa was a peaceful civilization free from warfare. The lack of found weapons and walls would lead one to think as much. However, no civilization has gone without some sort of warfare. And just because we have a lack of understanding of Harappan warfare, we should not think it did not exist.
This was a time of firsts. People were for the first time living in cities and moving to agriculture. As a result, they would be far more occupied with the daily struggles of life rather than concerning themselves with warfare. Contemporary civilizations only went to war within their general area. And if you look at where the Indus River valley is, it is very separated from anything else. To the west you have Mesopotamia, but at a great distance, and you then have to travel over mountains to get to Harappa. The mountains would have provided a great natural barrier sure to exhaust any fledgling army wanting to come from Mesopotamia. The Akkadians would seem to be the first to come into conflict with this region. This vastness of space helped the Indus River valley people become the most abundant during ancient times. This would be another reason we do not find evidence of warfare in Harappa, as there was so much room for expansion when resources became strained.Harappa did have defensible walls, but for the most part they were probably to keep out animals as they are not very well fortified except in the south. Like the Minoans, Harappans probably left their defenses to the natural surroundings. Weapons have not been found at the sight, but that does not mean they will not be found (or even moved)?. Think of when Japan surrendered their weapons to America at the end of WW2. Recently, archaeologists have been finding copper knives, spears, and arrowheads, all of which would have been used for hunting and small time raiding, which was the most likely form of warfare this area saw. Clay balls have also been found at Harappa, which would lead us to believe they favored fighting at a distance with clay sling pellets and arrows. This resembles the English in Medieval times when archers would outnumber soldiers ten to one.
Of all the major ancient civilizations, it would be easy to speculate that a warrior class was not of high importance to this civilization. We do not find any evidence for a highly developed military-industrial complex in the known artifacts.
END OF CIVILIZATION AS WE KNOW IT:
The end of the Indus River Valley was a perfect storm of events leading toward apocalypse. Around 1800 B.C.E., sea trade in Mesopotamia came to an end due to a shift in the Euphrates that caused the seaports in the Kuwaiti area to move northward, thus impacting the Indus River Valley people who based their whole existence on trade. When this trade ceased, many people were deprived of the means for their everyday survival. It would be the equivalent of Saudi Arabia ceasing to send America oil.
To complicate matters is the fact that this area was the most heavily populated of the ancient world. Over-grazing of livestock and the cutting down of trees for the production of copper obtained through trade would lead to enhanced soil erosion, making the land useless for agriculture.
Natural factors such as earthquakes and flooding wracked this area--the types of earthquakes that changed the direction of rivers. The quakes were so violent that whole areas would dry up, meaning everyone would have to pack up and move to the new flow of the river, only to repeat the process again at the next major earthquake.
Political infrastructures would strain and break as people became agitated at the distress of their daily struggles. People would begin to migrate in search of a more stable environment. Harappan pottery started to show up in Indo-European grave sites in the area just south of the Urals.
Soil erosion and a decline in trade led to social instability. The social instability combined with natural disasters led to mass migrations into other areas, cultures. Combine all of this with some sporadic raiding on a poorly defended city already on the verge of collapse and you have the perfect recipe for the end of a civilization.
SOURCES:
web source1
http://hemant-bhardwaj.blogspot.com/2008/08/harappan-civilization-and-myth-of-aryan.html
web source 2
http://www.rivervalleycivilizations.com/indus.php
web source 3
http://history-world.org/indus_valley.htm
web source 4:
http://www.harappa.com/
web source 5:
http://www.indohistory.com/science_and_mathematics.html
web source 6:
http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/sarasvati/html/artefacts.htm
web source 2
http://www.rivervalleycivilizations.com/indus.php
web source 3
http://history-world.org/indus_valley.htm
web source 4:
http://www.harappa.com/
web source 5:
http://www.indohistory.com/science_and_mathematics.html
web source 6:
http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/sarasvati/html/artefacts.htm
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